Legal Aspects of Health Administration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Legal Aspects of Health Administration - Essay Example Health care fraud deals with stating falsehoods related to health care to someone who can offer financial benefit. There are false and fraudulent claims to medicinal billing, vehicle expenditure, construction expenditure and much more (Jesilow, et.al, 1995). The health care fraud can be seen at various places associated to the health care division and in all those places, there are chances of health care fraud. The various categories of health care fraud are associated to the health care places as there are hospital frauds, pharmaceutical frauds, nursing home frauds, medical equipment frauds, ambulance services frauds, frauds in terms of provision of not provided services and many more (Jesilow, et.al, 1995). Health care fraud is categorized as misstating the factual data, stroppy amounts for services, needless health treatment, addition of amounts for private usage and inducement (Jesilow, et.al, 1995). It has been reported in ‘The Punishment of "Health Care Fraud"’ by Mastin that AHM (American Healthcare Management) submitted false claims regarding billing related to health care division for which, they paid charges of 1.25 million dollars to resolve the issue (McGuire and Schneider, 2007). It was reported that in spite of taking funds for wrong information related to the health care needs such as improvement of quality of health care, betterment of cleaning and bathing facilities and buying of medicines and other health related things (McGuire and Schneider, 2007). As a punishment, AHM was fined to pay an amount of 1.25 million dollars to the government. The punishment also included the exclusion of nearly three nursing homes and the proprietor has to suffer an exclusion of twenty years because of the fraudulent activity concerning finance (McGuire and Schneider, 2007). Another example related to fraudulent act done by some persons on behalf of health care is related to recreational motor vehicle that used to hang

Impact of globalization on the cultural environment of business China Essay

Impact of globalization on the cultural environment of business China - Essay Example China’s economy has shifted from being developing to being the fourth largest economy in the world. This is attributed to the high capital flows across its borders and hence, globalization. Globalization has had substantive impact on the business environment in Chinese organizations. The following paper critically investigates and analyses globalization’s impact on the cultural business environment in Chinese organizations. Globalization is viewed differently by economists and business leaders. According to Lui, Anti-globalists views capitalize on the cons of this phenomenon which include employment insecurity associated by production shifts. Another major minus of globalization is pay cuts due to increased competition associated to opening up local markets to global competition. Lastly, global companies are associated with social injustices in their business practices and unfair working conditions such as slavery and mismanagement of the environment. Pro-globalists maintain a strong view that globalization lead to higher standards of living. They argue that competitive markets lead to more efficiency in resource utilization, elimination of monopoly markets and how it promotes democracy all over the world. To understand what net impact globalization has, it is vital to appreciate that globalization refers to a process based on the formation of a single market of goods, services and factors of productions, including capital, labor, technology and natural resources, covering all the economic regions of all countries. The two main aspects which led to the sudden transformation were sophistication in information technology field and innovation of internet. In this process, national and international markets are combined in to a single complex whole. In the world economy, globalization lead to an increased dependency on different

Critical Analysis of Leadership Theories and Assessing Links

Critical Analysis of Leadership Theories and Assessing Links An organization is comprised of a large set of individuals, working together to attain a specified common goal. The concrete organisational framework is based upon specified values and positive culture escorted by charismatic leaders that are required to comprehend their roles and responsibilities towards both the employees and the organisation. A positive work environment is comprised of intellectual and enigmatic leaders that believe in empowering employees and appreciate their active participation in the progression of the company (Balain, and Sparrow 2009, p. 227). The concept of leadership is generated to monitor the behavioural patterns of employees including and motivate them to enhance their loyalty towards the organisation. The behavioural patterns of employees greatly vary depending upon their individual circumstances and therefore, it is extremely crucial for the leaders to develop an empathetic approach towards resolving the issues of employees and to inspire them for eff ective contribution to achieve the organisational objectives. It is the responsibility of the organisational leaders to develop challenging but achievable goals and boost the team spirit amongst the employees to achieve maximum organisational productivity (Knight, Durham and Locke 2001, p. 329). There could be diverse range of motivational factors that might influence an individuals conviction and the effective leaders have the ability to single out those factors to persuade the employees to enhance organisational growth and maximise its productivity (Choi 2006, p. 26). This paper is intended to analyse the role of leadership and employee motivation in long term organisational success by critical evaluation of the theoretical underpinnings of the subject. The idea is to reflect the behavioural patterns of both the leaders and employees by recognizing the need for employee motivation and understanding the role of leaders to optimistically incite the employees in the best interest of the organisation (Knight, Durham and Locke 2001, p. 335). The main objective of this paper is to explicate the functional features of an organisation in which the role of leadership becomes extremely significant in order to develop smart employee motivational strategies to ensure their satisfaction and thereby, producing constructive employees attitudes to preserve long term organisational success. ROLE OF LEADERSHIP IN ORGANISATIONAL SUCCESS Routine official work environment has several challenges and issues which are required to be sorted with sheer intelligence and determination. Organisational structure is extremely complex including diverse nature of employees and therefore, the role of leader becomes extremely significant to maintain a positive and constructive workplace (Hamlin 2002). The most integral aspect of a leaders personality is the understanding towards responsibilities and willingness to combat with difficulties and challenges. Not all managers can become effective leaders (Knight, Durham and Locke 2001, p. 335) as the complex organisational structure and diversity of employees makes it difficult to realize the dynamics of key motivating factors that facilitate in enhanced organisational productivity. The globalised work environment of today is comprised of organisations having employees coming from different backgrounds, speaking diversified languages and competent in varying range of skills and therefor e, leaders today, are not just required to focus on task accomplishment but must also address the employees expectations by engaging them as effectively contributing member of the organisation. Employees look upon their organisational leaders as a coach who enables them to understand and perform their task in correct manner (Hamlin 2002). Employees expect their leaders to effectively communicate and direct them to prevail over the work-related issues and obstacles by motivational skills. The concept of leadership is based upon the combination of personality, ideologies, intellect, motivation and trust (Balain, and Sparrow 2009, p. 228). Organisations endeavour fiscal growth and productivity which can be achieved by progressive employees followed by a charismatic leader. It is significant for the organisational leaders to recruit maximum number of followers and for that, leaders through their personal charm, ideologies and intellect gain trust of employees and motivate them to accomp lish organisational goals (Kaplan and Norton 2004, p. 37). Long term organisational success is highly dependent upon leadership and employee motivation. It has been studied that, in order to achieve long-term organisational success, leaders are required to gain trust of employees and motivate them (Baldoni, 2005, p. 175). The distinct qualities encompassing excellence in performance and management skills ascertain the organisational leaders. The ability to envision, empathise, and empower are the three core components that determine the charismatic attribute of a leader. Envisioning behaviour of a leader influences other organisational members by stimulating a need to accomplish and the empathic behaviour facilitate the followers to gel with their leader based on ideological affiliations (Choi, 2006, p. 41). ANALYISING THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP Leaders are the symbol of ideologies that are followed by others and organisations acquire tremendous growth and success by integrating charismatic leadership within their work environment. Interaction of leaders with the followers tends to develop a positive and highly motivated work environment which eventually results in the organisational success (Pratti et al, 2003, p. 27). The six most integral leadership theories have been critically analysed to understand the reasons behind advanced performance levels which enhances the economic and organisational strength. Great Man Theory The theoretical model of Great Man theory was based on a belief that the leadership is confine only to the aristocratic people that are destined to escort the rest. Formerly the people belonging to upper-class were treated differently and were looked upon by others due to specific qualities they posses or the exceptional standard of living they enjoyed. It was believed that only a limited number of people were uniquely gifted with certain abilities and traits that made it possible for them to become leaders and the rest are meant to follow them (Pratti et al, 2003, p. 32). The most critical element of the Great Man theory was the blind conviction in the leadership of aristocratic people and firmly believing that the traits of leadership can never be inherited, developed, learnt, or acquired (Baldoni, 2005, p. 179), which limited the scope of leadership. The term Great Man itself has a limited scope as the theoretical model is primarily male, military and west oriented. While analysin g the phenomenon of intrinsic supremacy of the Great Man theory, it is indeed true that there are certain men possessing some congenital power to influence over their contemporaries, substantiating their right to leadership however, the concept of limiting the headship to a group of aristocratic is inequitable (Choi 2006, p. 42). If the Great Man model is applied to the contemporary organisational structure, it might produce unconstructive outcomes as the diversification of employees background, languages, skills and individual circumstance has given rise to a much perplexed work environment where aristocratic aspect of Great Man theory would develop pessimism amongst employees. The globalised nature of work environment has developed a breed of employees that are much more aware, educated, skilful and competent (Hamlin 2002). Employees today do not necessarily be content with handsome remuneration package instead they look forward to professional growth and enhanced opportunities. T he Great Man theoretical model does not address the prospects and expectations of existing organisational workforce as it is confined to offer leadership opportunities to aristocratic group of people only. Followed by the Great Man theoretical model which advocates the innate superiority, the exceptional traits, qualities and attributes of the leaders were explored and as a result of which Trait Theory was developed. Trait Theories The Trait Theories were developed with a purpose of determining the core characteristics of leaders that contributed towards organisational success. The theory was put forward with intent to facilitate the organisations in the identification of key traits, qualities and attributes of leaders so that the correct set of people can be recruited and installed into leadership positions of the organisation. There are a number of leadership traits identified by several studies including adaptability, decisiveness, cooperation, dependability, assertiveness, determination, self confidence (Wheatley 2001, p. 92) however, it has been observed that there is no quantifiable means to identify leadership characteristics and there are no consistent set of qualities that might support the concept of a true leader (Baldoni, 2005, p. 212). Human beings have numerous positive and negative traits that are responsible in shaping up the overall personality of an individual. All leaders posses the universal quality to influence others however, the set of fundamental traits that enables them to dominate over their contemporaries might considerably differ (Pratti et al, 2003, p. 37). It has been studied that the generic qualities of a leader such as charismatic personality, sociability and intelligence are not limited to themselves only instead the most commonly held traits of leaders can also be shared by diverse group of people which do not necessarily become leaders. On the other hand, generic traits of the leaders might be similar however, the absence of some of these generic traits do not make them any less leader. There has been somewhat consistency in the generic traits of leaders that may include administrative skills, decisiveness, responsiveness and astuteness which enables them to ensure enhanced organisational productivity. It has been argued that there is the probability of prominent leaders being gifted by few common traits nevertheless; it is nearly impracticable that all leaders pose a collective set of characteristics (Pratti et al, 2003, p. 39) and hence, the Trait Theory failed to sustain its momentum. It is significant to note that, neither the authoritative traits corroborate the position of a leader and nor the position of leadership can be acquired by the identified authoritative characteristics (Gosling and Mintzberg 2003). Behavioural Theories The contradictory nature of the Trait Theories, lead the researchers to focus on the behavioural aspect of organisational leaders and as a result of which the Behavioural Theories were formulated that are primarily based on studying the varying leadership styles. The McGregors X Y Managers Theory has been widely publicised stating that the leaders assumptions about human nature greatly influences the overall organisational leadership stratagem. In accordance with McGregors theoretical model, the theory X managers deem that there is an intrinsic aversion amongst human beings towards obligations and responsibilities which circumvents their desire to work unless persuaded. Theory X managers are required to consistently direct and control their workforce to achieve organisational objectives. On the other hand, theory Y managers believe that correct work atmosphere combined with employees commitment facilitates people in exercising self-direction and self-control that ultimately aid in a ccomplishing the pre-set organisational goals. By analysing the McGregors theoretical model, it can be observed that the theory X mangers support the domineering style whereas; theory Y managers support a participative approach of leadership. The domineering leaders have strict control over their employees characterised by their decisiveness conversely, the participative leaders are much more considerate and are found to behave sympathetically towards the employees and thereby, develop a sense of affiliation and trust (Pratti et al, 2003, p. 40). While contrasting both the leadership behaviours it can be constituted that the autocratic leaders are strict but disciplined which results in obtaining better results in terms of enhanced fiscal growth conversely, the participative leaders are the preferred choice of the employees but the performance margin is considerably reduced due to their considerate behaviour. The Blake and Moutons Managerial Grid is another behavioural theory focuse s on organisational production and employee orientations by analysing the combinations of concerns between the two extremes. Blake and Moutons Managerial Grid measures the leaders concerns for production on horizontal and concerns for people on the vertical axis by identifying the five key leadership styles. By analysing the Blake and Moutons Managerial Grid, it has been observed that the most crucial aspect of leadership behaviour is to value the collaborative approach and teamwork that eventually results in long-term organisational success. Situational Contingency Theories Depending upon the consistently evolving work environment and inconsistent circumstances, it can be constituted that the leadership styles has to be considerably flexible and adaptive in order to address the underlying organisational issues. After identifying the behavioural aspects of leadership it was inevitable to apply them in varying situations to assess their practicability. Fiedlers Contingency Model was put forward with intent to address workplace issues that are highly reliant upon the impinged situational factors explicating that mechanistic organisational environment may progress well with autocratic leadership style whereas a participative approach is suited to a dynamic work environment having a flexible approach (Heslin, VandeWalle, Latham 2006, p. 882). Fiedler Contingency Model categorised managers in two distinct groups i.e. task and relationship oriented and environment as favourable or unfavourable. This model enables the leaders to manipulate the environmental var iables to match their leadership styles. In accordance with the contingency model the relationship and power positioning of a leader with its team members greatly influences the task structure (Baum and Locke 2004, p. 587) and it has been observed that the favourable work environment characterised by constructive leader-member relationship tends to yield a high task structure where a leader has the power to appreciate or penalize its employees with absolute authority and vice versa. Both the task motivated and relationship motivated leadership styles comes with their relative set of pros and cons as the task-motivated leaders can gain fiscal growth by outperforming the key competitors (Kaplan and Norton 2004, p. 42) whereas, the relationship motivated leaders gain customer satisfaction which establishes the positive image of the organisation which fairly contributes in attaining long-term organisational success. The theoretical grounds of Hersey-Blanchard Model of Leadership are bas ed on assessing the developmental capacity of employees which tends to determine the suitability of a leadership style in a specific situation. The theory is based on the combination of task behaviour and relationship behaviour of a leader depending upon the maturity of its subordinates within a workplace setting. With respect to the situational variables of subordinates maturity levels, the leadership style have been categorised into four kinds out of which two major leadership styles including directive behaviour and supportive behaviours are deemed as the most significant (Perren and Burgoyne 2001). In directive behaviour category the leaders adopt a one-way communication strategy where leaders decide, communicate, direct and closely monitor the performance of the subordinates to achieve the core organisational objectives (Balain, and Sparrow 2009, p. 229). On the other hand, the supportive behaviour of a leader is two-way communication process in which leaders adopt a flexible a pproach by engaging the subordinates in the decision making process, listen to their views, offer support and encourage their contributions in task performance. The most significant aspect of Hersey-Blanchard Model is that, it provides a multi-purpose approach by allowing the leaders to assess the maturity level of their subordinates and thereby, adjust their behaviours accordingly. The theory emphasises on enhancing the maturity level of subordinates by effective coaching techniques, increased support and motivational schemes so that the burden on leadership can be fine-tuned as per the developmental capacity of the employees which not only benefits the leaders but is equally favourable to the organisation in longer run. The Tannenbaum Schmidts Continuum model is an extension of contingency theories suggesting that there are four main leadership behaviours varies along a continuum including autocratic or telling style, persuasive or selling style, consultative or consulting style and democratic or joining style. The continuum model has distinguished the leadership styles and applied them to specified situations as for example telling style is most suited to mature team in an emergency situation, the selling style is applicable to an aggressive work setting where leader is decisive however the enthusiastic participation of the subordinates is equally valued. The consulting and joining leadership is complimentary to somewhat similar situation where collective decision making by both the leaders and subordinates result in enhanced productivity of the organisation (Heslin, VandeWalle, Latham 2006, p. 886). Another significant situational or contingency model is the Adairs Action-Centred leadership which is characterised by a three circle diagram. The situational and contingent elements determine the responsiveness of leader to address the organisational issues and achieve the desired goals. Leaders and Followers Previously the concept of leadership was confined to idealise the solo frontal figures that contributes in achieving organisational objectives. The theories of Leaders and Followers are intended to highlight the interdependency of leaders and their subordinates and reflect the significance of collaborative work environment. The theory of Servant Leadership determines the individual perception to serve first and then lead by encouraging teamwork, prescience and trust within the organisational structure by empowering all and treating them with fairness. Team Leadership is another theoretical approach that is put forward by Meredith Belbin emphasising on the balanced team efforts by proposing a network of individuals working together for a common organisational goal having both individual strengths and weaknesses. Team work is most suited to the complex structure of globalised work environment as the leaders are less interfering and believe in engaging their subordinates as actively par ticipating members of the organisation (Goleman, McKee and Boyatzis 2002, p. 22). The volatile organisational structure of today requires concerted working relationships due to its diverse nature and the leadership style that promotes employees development offers a holistic approach where problem solving and decisiveness of a leader is complimented and supported by the entire team. In addition to this, James MacGregor Burns came up with the Transactional and Transformational Leadership Model which is which enables to develop an understanding of monetary and ethical needs of organisation followed by a leader. The transactional leadership is based on business perspective by relying on short term fiscal benefits to maximise organisational efficiency. The transactional leadership focuses on tactical issues and is hard data orientation by supporting the entrenched structure and systems and is predominantly occupied by power, politics and perks (Baum and Locke 2004, p. 589). On the other hand, the foundation of transformational leadership is has high moral and ethical grounds based on pre-defined purposes. The significance of transformational leadership is the diffusion of duties and responsibilities amongst the team to acquire meaningful and challenging job roles for the subordinates in order to develop a sense of self-worth by acknowledging the human potential (Drach-Zahavy and Erez 2002, p. 668). Transformational leaders work towards acquiring long-term organisational success by prudently aligning the internal structure and systems without comprising the core values and principles. Dispersed Leadership It is an informal leadership style that is significantly dissociated with the organisational hierarchal model. The Dispersed Leadership model is the most contemporary theoretical model which encourages the all individuals within an organisation to contribute their leadership skills without any limitations of hierarchy and positively influence their colleagues to maximise organisational productivity. It has been studied that, by developing leaderful culture and work environment by the help of synchronized, cooperative and empathetic leadership model (Raelin 2003, p. 62), the organisations can become more progressive as the responsibility and commitment of a leader can be extensively entrenched throughout the entire organisation without the limitations imposed by formal chain of commands. The relationship and social behaviour of an individual determines its leadership qualities and the intrinsic characteristics and traits of a leader have the power to influence other by producing follo wers (James and Burgoyne 2001). Hence, the phenomenon of dispersed leadership i.e. encouraging the development of leaders amongst the small groups of same ideologies may also benefit the organisation by the prelude of a modern work environment having shared set of responsibilities. ASSESSING THE LINKAGE BETWEEN LEADERSHIP EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION Leaders are expected to generate enthusiasm within their subordinates to maximise their efficiencies and are far-sighted to develop effectual strategies to overcome the obstacles that may hinder in smooth progression of the organisation. The most highly equipped organisational leaders utilise useful tools of communication, problem solving, people management, decision making and motivation to develop a strong bond with their team members and gain their trust to extort utmost output of their organisational performances (James and Burgoyne 2001). Suited to the diverse range of situations and contexts, the organisations put forward effective leadership styles in order to develop affiliations with their employees by exhibiting incredible drive and enthusiasm in order to achieve the desired goals. To acquire the desired results by the enhanced efficiency of their subordinates, leaders are required to stimulate them with the help of numerous motivational tools including incentives, growth o pportunities and rewards (Rodgers, Frearson, Holden and Gold 2003). Leadership theories combined with correct motivational strategies tends to deliver enhanced organisational productivity. Leaders are therefore anticipated to understand the human psychology as the organisational performances are greatly influenced by the psychosocial objectives of an individual (Heslin, VandeWalle, Latham 2006, p. 882). It is extremely significant to acknowledge the substance of human needs while developing organisational objectives as the labour force of the organisation is predominantly humans that are engaged in specific job roles to fulfil their basic needs. Apart from monetary benefits, an individual may also have varying psycho-social needs that develops an individual personality based on a personal belief system (Raelin 2003, p. 65). An organisation can successfully develop a high-performing workforce by addressing the psycho-social needs of its employees through monetary and symbolic rewards that tends to enhance a sense of self-worth and thereby contribute in acquiring the desired organisational goals (Renn 2003, p. 572). Considering the primary human needs and psychosocial necessitates, smart leaders develop effectual strategies to motivate their subordinates by unswervingly stimulating the correct individual motives (Wegge and Haslam 2005, p. 404). The employees of today have tremendously grown in terms of educational qualifications and thrive on knowledge based work environments where they expect to receive the due respect to their ideologies and acknowledgement of their contributions and efforts benefiting the organisation. Leaders are the primary and the most vital connecting point of the workforce with the organisation that enables the workforce to express their views with complete freedom and recognise their organisational contributions Goleman, McKee and Boyatzis 2002, p. 22). The previous methods of managing subordinates through leaders have been replaced by the contemporary techniques of employing personnel-centric strategies within the organisation in order to exceedingly motivate employees to gain competitive advantage in the market. Managers are required to motivate the employees and attain their utmost loyalty and devotion by inspiring them through effective leadership styles. The democratic nature of contemporary organisation supports the idea of empowering their employees and the leaders are now anticipated to produce their followers by adopting a flexible approach and widely accepted leadership style. Today, the products and services offered by the organisations are not the only means to compete in the market but the power of an organisation to retain a highly competitive, loyal and productive workforce determine their market supremacy (Drach-Zahavy and Erez 2002, p. 669). The linkage between true leadership and motivational strategies has been greatly emphasised by the organisations and it has been observed that leaders with their motivational stratagem play an integral role in maximising organisational productivity. The autocratic leadership styles followed by strictly hierarchal organisational structures have been subsided in the contemporary globalised work environment where employees prefer a democratic leadership that is meant to respect their psy cho-social objectives and is fair towards acknowledging their individual contributions in the overall organisational success. It has been identified that the contemporary workforce appreciates leaders that are persuasive and not coercive. Employees have now become more inclined towards professional pragmatism and challenging job roles rather than restricting their growth opportunities to short-term benefits like status and position (Goleman, McKee and Boyatzis 2002, p. 39). Therefore, organisations have also recognised the strong bond between effective leadership and motivational strategies and have put forward their enigmatic leaders that are willing to acclimatize their leadership skills in order to address the psycho-social needs of todays workforce. The long-term organisational success is highly reliant upon its progressive and devoted workforce (Hamlin 2002) that can be achieved by integrating the right set of motivational strategies through the most appropriate leadership styl es. Organisations prudently choose the appropriate leaders that have sufficient proclivity of analysing the core psycho-social needs of the employees and correct knowledge about the organisational environment (Wegge and Haslam 2005, p. 401). The intensity of leaders receptiveness to appropriately retort towards the consistently evolving situations together with their ability to address the unprecedented expectations of employees, ascertains the long-term organisational success. CONCLUSION (250) Peoples attitudes towards their employment have been considerably altered due to a shift from manual to knowledge based work environment in the contemporary globalised organisational structure. The fast-paced work environment combined with highly responsive employees behaviour has enhanced living standards and employees expectations and therefore, effectual and integrated leadership has become indispensible to motivate the organisational workforce of today. Depending upon varying situations, organisations position their best leaders that are required to motivate their subordinates through the most suitable leadership techniques in order to preserve the loyalty and commitment of the employees towards achieving maximum organisational productivity. To conclude, there is a strong relationship between effective leadership and employee motivational strategies that not only generate fiscal benefits by enhanced organisational productivity but also contribute in accomplishing long-term organi sational success.

Cetaceans And Evolution :: essays research papers

Cetaceans   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many forms of cetacean life living in the worlds waters. How an why they came into existence is uncertain, but there have been many theories. Some say that dolphins are aquatic forms of goats, and others believe they evolved just like everything else, from a single cell, and not from an actual multi-cellular being. Because most cetaceans have some vestigial structures such as under-developed os coxae, the former of these two theories remains prevalent in most researchers minds.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The theory that cetaceans evolved from a goat-like being is not at all farcical. The similarities between the skeletal systems are more than coincidental. The only difference is that the cetaceans adapted to a marine lifestyle. The front limbs became modified as paddle-shaped flippers, the bones of which are still reminiscent of jointed limbs and digits, but the hind limbs were lost. The broad horizontal tail flukes that provide the main propulsive thrust bear no anatomical connection to the lost hind limbs, but are a seperate and distint development. They contain no bone, and owe their firm and yet flexible shape to underlying fibrous elastic tissue. The body is enveloped in a thick layer of blubber that aids in bouyancy, helps to preserve body heat, and is a source of stored energy. A cetacean’s skin is free of sweat glands, oil glands, or hair, and feels much like smooth, wet rubber to the touch.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cetaceans, like other mammals, have lungs. They breathe air through a single nostril, or pair of nostrils, located on the top of the head; but contrary to a popular image, they do not â€Å"spout† water when they exhale. The visible spout, the size and shape of which is unique to many species, is simply water vapor in the lungs and a small amount of water present in the depression around the blowhole, which is blown into the air as th cetacean exhales.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A number of physiological adaptations enable whales to perform deep dives. First, they have a larger blood volume than land mammals of comparable size and weight, and they also have a greatly increased capacity to store oxygen in their blood and muscle tissue. Second, each breath provides an 80 to 90 percent renewal of air in the whale’s lung, compare with only 10 to 20 percent in most land mammals. Third, cetaceans have a resistance to the metabolic by-product carbon-dioxide, the buildup of which in the tissues, rather than the lack of oxygen, triggers the involuntary breathing response of most mammals.

How does Virgil deviate from Homer in the underworld, and why Essay

When comparing â€Å"The Aeneid† to â€Å"The Odyssey†, it is impossible not to notice the similarity between Homer and Virgil’s poems. Both heroes leave Troy, granted one barely escapes and the other leaves victoriously, and both in one sense or the other are trying to reach their home, whether it is the old or future home. The adventures of the two heroes are incredibly similar on a number of accounts with the trip to the underworld being most intriguing. First of all it is important to understand that Homer and Virgil wrote their poems for different reasons; Homer’s â€Å"The Odyssey† was written for entertainment purposes, while Virgil’s â€Å"The Aeneid† was written in order to subtly praise Augustus and promote the glory of Rome. This could in fact explain most of Virgil’s deviations from â€Å"The Odyssey†. The two poems present us with very clear similarities; both heroes have to travel to the underworld in order to continue their voyage; both meet friends, foes and most importantly a parent. Besides that, both Odysseus and Aeneas are guided by a god without whom they may have not been able to enter the underworld, and would definitely would not have been able to leave it. Even with these similarities however, the tasks of Odysseus and Aeneas are entirely different and the underworlds which they become acquainted with are also not explained in the same manner. Therefore, while the basic idea of the underworld seems to be the same for both poets, their description of Odysseus’s and Aeneas’s trips make these passages entirely different. One of the most obvious comparisons of the poems is Aeneas and Odysseus’s meeting with old friends and family; both for example meet one of their parents. In this case, Odysseus may be sympathized with more for he did not know of his mother’s death and in the underworld had learnt that she died because of his absence and her longing for her son. Aeneas on the other hand does know that his father is no longer alive, but that does not stop both characters from crying when seeing their parent and both trying to embrace him/her three times. The gender of the dead parent also makes a point; Aeneas’s dad could be referring to the all-knowing Caesar and the male dominance in Rome. Odysseus’s mother on the other hand, once again for the purpose of entertainment, could be representing Penelope, Ithaka and all the love Odysseus has for his home. Besides the meeting with their parent, both heroes are undermined through their treatment of the spirits. For example, both are captains and both have managed to miscount their sailors not noticing that one of their men has died. This is crucial for Aeneas’s story for if he is the founder of Rome and cannot keep count of a handful of men, how is he to establish and control a new city? Besides that, another interesting point is Odysseus’s meeting with Ajax and Aeneas’s meeting with Dido. Here, the similarities are bewildering; both of these characters die because of the heroes, both of them die by thrusting a knife into their chest and both of them are still angry with Odysseus and Aeneas. As interesting as their actions may be, Odysseus and Aeneas both blame their actions on the gods, Aeneas more than Odysseus. Once again this undermines the founder of Rome for he cannot take responsibility for what he has caused and expects the gods not only to help him get to Italy, but also to be able to blame his mistakes on them. Even the reason for Odysseus and Aeneas’s trip to the underworld creates confusion as to what is similar and what is not. For example, they both enter the underworld because they need to in order to complete the voyages but also because they have been told to do so by the gods. Odysseus enters Hades in order to find the prophet Teiresias to guide him back to Ithaka, even though by going to this meeting he is risking his life, and Aeneas enters the underworld to see his father who tells him of the future of the city he is about to found. One of the main contrasts of the two poems is that Odysseus focuses more on the past of his life; he is trying to get home where he was before, in the underworld he sees his fallen friends from Troy, he is trying to get back to his wife and son etc. Aeneas on the other hand is much more focused on the future; he is also trying to get home, but that home does not exist yet, besides that, while seeing his old friends he also finds out about the future of his generations and yet even more about the city he is on his way to establish. This could bring us to the point of Homer’s vs. Virgil’s reasons for writing their poems; as mentioned earlier,  Homer wrote his poem for entertainment purposes. This explains why the majority of book eleven is made up of Odysseus meeting his old friends and great warriors of the war; through telling their stories, Homer entertained the readers and the audience by letting them imagine how the heroes act after their death (what still matters to them, which quarrels have not been forgotten etc.). Virgil on the other hand skips most of the greetings of Aeneas with old friends and focuses instead on the meeting with his father. There, while including sentimentality, the main point of the meeting is for Aeneas and the readers to find out about where the rulers of Rome came from. Aeneas in the underworld gets to see, although not speak to, his future son, the future Caesars and learns all about the glory of the future empire. Even the description of the underworld itself may fall under the same entertainment vs. glorifying Rome purposes. Homer’s Hades is filled with darkness, screams and blood; even in order to get the spirits to talk to him, Odysseus has to give them fresh blood to drink (â€Å"whom you allow to enter where the blood is will speak to you† 164). That image going alongside the terrifying dark description of Hades shows how brave Odysseus was; despite the fact that he does confess â€Å"†¦I grew sick with fear.† (46). This is an entirely different perception of the underworld Aeneas enters: even though on the outside it is surrounded by the souls of the unburied who incite fear, once Aeneas has gone through the darkness and the souls he meets his father in a â€Å"†¦places of delight†¦ green park land† (855). This is an interesting description because it suggests to the readers that once you pass through the darkness and hardship, you are rewarded with happiness and freedom. Through this Virgil could be describing not only everything Rome’s founder had to do for the city, but also glorifying Augustus by describing that none of the benefits of Rome have come easily. Even small remarks such as â€Å"Some train on grassy rings, others compete In field games† (860) could be referenced back to the how strong and hardworking the Roman nation is. While glorifying Rome and Augustus, Virgil also includes some subtle criticisms or questions about the founder of Rome. First of all, while Odysseus was able to enter Hades alone, Aeneas had to be shown the way by the prophetess and servant of Apollo: when following her heels Aeneas walked with determination and pride, but without her fear overwhelmed him. This could suggest that Aeneas is not in fact as great and fearless as he may seem. Besides that, one of Aeneas’s main tasks was to retrieve the golden bough (would the whole notion that it was golden signify that the Romans are now a â€Å"golden† nation?) which only those who are destined by fate can take down easily. Aeneas however could not even find the bough himself, his immortal mother had to send doves to lead the way. Afterwards, when his mother did show him where the golden bough was, â€Å"†¦though it clung, [he] greedily broke it off,† (298). The fact that the bough clung could be interpreted in two ways; for those who were reading it to see the glory of Rome, it could suggest the battle between Juno and Venus with Aeneas caught in between them, and the fact that he does take it down in the end suggests that the gods are in his favor after all. For those who are open to the criticism of Rome, it could be interpreted as the fact that Aeneas was not entirely brought their by fate, that maybe he specifically did not have to be the founder of Rome, but Venus made it happen. Furthermore, the word â€Å"greedily† is interesting to have been used in this context: when reading about a hero who has established one of the greatest empires one would not expect him to be greedy, rather fearless but calm and level headed; Aeneas greedily ripping off the bough does not create and image of a hero. In conclusion, Virgil’s â€Å"The Aeneid† greatly resembles Homer’s â€Å"The Odyssey† and this is seen clearly through the poets’ descriptions of the underworld. However, while â€Å"The Odyssey† was created for entertainment purposes, Virgil has managed to subtly praise and criticize his city, its ruler and its founder making his poem, and book six specifically, full of surprises.

In Defense of the Kalam Cosmological Argument Essay

Kalam Cosmological Argument Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Kalam cosmological argument refers to an exercise the positive apologetics which is aimed at proving that truly God exists. Kalam cosmological argument has become an argument which is extremely popular both in philosophy of religion as well as in apologetics. It was developed in the middle ages by the Muslim philosophers and it was brought back into the spotlight by William Lane Craig, a Christian philosopher. This argument has been extremely significant in defending philosophical position of the theistic worldviews. Although this argument has roots in medieval and ancient philosophy, proposition of argument and modern interpretation has deemed craig’s work to be formative. Kalam cosmological argument is criticized for various reasons.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Although craig is able to demonstrate all this, his argument does not succeed because it is unable to show or prove that God exists. His argument has nothing to say concerning the moral character of God and especially regarding particular Gods. This kind of objection is exemplified through â€Å"Evil God† hypothesis by Stephen Law, where there exists a personal creator of universe who is uncaused and who sans the world is changeless, beginningless, spaceless, timeless, immaterial and extremely powerful. The mere disparity is that this God is extremely malevolent. According to Kalam argument, Stephen law argues that this Evil God is as probable as the good God, thus the kalam argument doesn’t demonstrate that the good God actually exists, and even does not form a component of a cumulative case of such a God (Djuric, 2011).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Craig’s reply to the criticism by Mackie of the first sub-argument is quite perplexing. He admits that the countless set theory is a system which is logically consistent. As a result, it seems that he admits that there exist logically possible worlds where various infinites obtain. Though, he then maintained that the question which is significant is whether such an unlimited can be obtained or instantiated in the actual world. This question can be understood well using the following suggestions. The first proposition is that the problem is if in the actual world there are any infinites. The second proposition is that the issue is if in the real world there is a possibility of having any infinites. The third suggestion involves the question if in any world there is a possibility of having any infinites (Craig, 2014).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The third suggestion can be immediately dismissed since dismissed by the fact that craig admitted that there exists some world with infinites. The first suggestion can be dismissed also because craig is unable to give defence of this particular claim. He claimed that the kalam argument’s proponent focuses on the claim that in the real world there exist no infinites. However, craig does not provide any further evidence to prove the claim there is no infinites in the real earth beyond the notion that supposing otherwise would be absurd. Because Mackie does not agree with this intuition, this thought cannot be decisive (Nowacki, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Craig’s key reply to the criticisms by Mackie is very weak. Mackie’s argument was that there was a possibility that something can begin to exist despite it being uncaused. In order for the Kalam cosmological argument to successfully claim that there is no possibility of something to being existing although uncaused it is supposed to come up with arguments which portrays that this claim has a logical inconsistency. Therefore this argument cannot succeed since Craig was unable to validate his claim through providing convincing arguments which would assist in establishing this claim. Mackie proposes that neither of the arguments is true. He added that there is no superior reason to claim that either of the arguments is true. Finally, Mackie argues that, eve if the objections were to fail, there were reasons for assumption that the theist cannot constantly maintain that God can subsist uncaused and also the universe cannot subsis t uncaused. Kalam also failed to provide supportive details to back up his argument. Mackie proposes that it is truly plausible things can subsist uncaused (Rasmussen, 2009).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Mackie also propose that the presumptions that are necessary to make the argument inconsistent with theists’ assumptions. The infinite set theory fails to apply the ontological commitment regarding the real world. In the actual world the illogicality in question do not come about since actual infinite does not exist. The ontological commitment holds that only finite collection that exists. Proponents of Kalam argument totally infer that any ‘real’ earthly order must have a preliminary point. Mackie argues that from any instant, there is only a predetermined extent to the present is appropriate if those sequences maintain this property. Mackie’s argument is that for each position in the series of successive accumulation, there is a former one which it develops from addition. To presume that there is any possibility that the cycle is not derived by successive addition is basically to express a discrimination agains t the assertion that there is likelihood for such sequences (Nowacki, 2007).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In addition proponents of Kalam fail to provide arguments that are logically consistent with the claim that something can exist uncaused. Proponents of Kalam can suppose that things can exist uncaused, but there are adequate reasons in the universe to believe that the world is controlled by some conservation laws that make sure there is no occurrence of such things. Kalam proponents’ argument is deeply devoted to the stipulation of God as an uncaused and eternal being. This might be understood to mean that perhaps the universe is an uncaused and eternal being. There is no righteous approach of believing that neither God has this possessions or the universe. Kalam criticizers provide appropriate points that reveal that, even though the argument can be sound, but they failed to prove that God exist. Oppy criticizes Kalam by saying that it is not conditionally rationally persuasive for its projected audience. He supported his notion by adding that the argument depend on metaphysical and physical theory which stakeholders of the intended audience rebuff. The argument is that Kalam argument does not propose that God exists, yet the universe exists (Oppy, 1991).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Kalam is greatly criticized due to the fact that they do not elaborate whey God does not need a cause if the universe needs a course. The argument is clear that God does not need a cause since it is only things that exist have a cause, but they fail to explain how the universe started to exist. There are inadequate reasons to support that the universe existed due to the causal principles in the Kalam argument. Protestations that things at a first instant of time need no explanation is very unpersuasive, because they do not give supportive reasons whey there is a pertinent difference in the underlying question between first instances and embedded time moments. The kalam case that â€Å"The universe began to exist† is limited since it fails to explain how it started to exist and when. It is also an assumption that the world had existed eternally in the ancient times. Alexander criticized kalam argument by saying, â€Å"any universe w hich is, on average, in a state of cosmic expansion throughout its history, cannot be infinite in the past, but must have a past space-time boundary† (Pitts, 2008).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Kalam argument fails to explain how the universe started to exist and thus the second premise of this premise is also limited due to this beginning less model. Kalam third premise is that everything that exists has a cause which is a controversial conclusion. There are no reasons provided to prove that God exist. It is unsatisfactory to conclude that simply because the world exists the cause is God. Kalam third premise has brought up a lot of debate regarding the possibility of the universe being in existence due to a cause. According to Ockham’s Razor, Kalam third premise violate the principle of parsimony. There is no legal basis for hypothesizing causes beyond necessity. This can be argued since the fundamental cause of the universe would not begin to exist, it could also not require a cause on the basis of these arguments, and therefore it can be simply proposed that the universe is uncaused. This can be applicable if the opinio ns from infinity exertion, and are employed to a countless number of underlying entities.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Kalam argument also fails to explain the beginning of the earth. If the first Kalam principle is factual, that anything that begins to subsist has a cause, it is right to say that nothing that can start to exist if it is uncaused (â€Å"Introduction to the Kalam Cosmological Argument†, 2014). If, then, we admit the prudence of the cause of the world being uncaused, it would follow that, along with the first premise of the innovative argument, that this grounds does not start to subsist. The argument succeeds in demonstrating the three premises, but it is considered worthless. It does not prove that God exist and His moral nature. Kalam argument is inadequate since it does not show any possibility of good God. Consequently, kalam argument fails to demonstrate existence of good God, and does not comprise a collective case for such a God.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Kalam assertion of universe having a cause eliminates the prospect of an uncaused world; it seems practical that it should bring about the probability of theism as an illustrative supposition consequently, though it concurrently raises the likelihood of other descriptive hypotheses. Kalam premises are not convincing because it seems to be applying collective force especially the last kalam premise, hence it is more than logical to make a conclusion that the world has a cause. The argument also brings the probability of a God-like cause, though not as irrational as many people would assume, and not yet wholly convincing. Kalam argument also leaves a lot of gaps since it bring about the probability that the cause must be very powerful. This is because the universe came into physical reality without any material cause. The third premise also relies on the characteristics associated to cause. Kalam argument does not specify any time before the universe. Therefore, it is not easy to explain the existence of the earth based on laws operating on primary conditions, and hence it can only be explained by personal explanation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In conclusion, Kalam cosmological argument succeeded to explain the three premises, but they failed to provide adequate reasons to support their argument. Kalam first premise was that everything that exists has a source. The second premise was that the earth began to exist. The third kalam premise was that the universe has a source. Kalam cosmological argument violates the principle of parsimony. They fail to explain the relationship of the causal relationship to support their concept. Kalam argument fails to explain the source of the earth, it also fails to provide the cause of the universe or how it came to being. Kalam did not indicate that there was time before the beginning of the earth. The argument also fails to explain how the universe came to being because there is a cause. The third premise ends with unconvincing argument that the universe has an origin. This brings further discussion of the potential qualities that the cause of the universe must possess. It can be argued that the universe is uncaused because the cause cannot be based on kalam argument. Kalam cosmological argument faces a lot of criticism because the arguments are not supported by logic and hence people are left with gaps. The major argument is that if the universe came to being because it was caused, it follows that nothing can exist if it is uncaused. References Djuric, D. (2011). Kalam cosmological argument. Filozofija i DruÃ…Â ¡tvo, 22(1), 29-51. In Defense of the Kalam Cosmological Argument | Reasonable Faith. (n.d.). ReasonableFaith.org. Retrieved September 18, 2014, from http://www.reasonablefaith.org/in-defense-of-the-kalam-cosmological-argument Introduction to the Kalam Cosmological Argument. (n.d.). Calum Millers blog. Retrieved September 18, 2014, from http://calumsblog.com/apologetics/arguments-for-gods-existence/kalam/ Nowacki, M. R. (2007). The Kalam cosmological argument for God. Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books. Oppy, G. (1991). Craig, Mackie, and the Kalam Cosmological Argument. Religious Studies, 27(02), 189.Pitts, J. B. (2008). Why the Big Bang Singularity Does Not Help the Kalam Cosmological Argument for Theism. The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 59(4), 675-708. Rasmussen, M. (2009). On The â€Å"Kalam† Cosmological Argument: As proposed by William Lane Craig. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. The Kalam Cosmological Argument. (n.d.). JW Wartick Always Have a Reason. Retrieved September 18, 2014, from http://jwwartick.com/category/apologetics/arguments-for-god/cosmological-arguments/the-kalam-cosmological-argument/ Source document